Interpersonal Communication

Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, & Chua (1988), differentiate cultures on the basis of the variables in communication and interaction styles predominant within each culture. One of the variables refers to individualism versus collectivism; another variable refers to low context versus high context. The following charts compare U.S. culture, which is perceived as being predominantly individualistic and low context, to Cambodian culture, which is perceived as being predominantly collectivist and high context.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Puerto Rican and U.S. majority cultures (Collectivism vs. Individualism).

Cambodian Culture Collectivism	American Majority Culture Individualism
Extended family: Parent(s), children, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.	Nuclear family: Parent(s)and children.
Loyalty to the group = “I belong.”	Loyalty to one's own goals = “I'm self-sufficient.”
Group consensus = “We”	Personal opinion = “I”
Omission of truth = Harmony	Omission of truth = Dishonesty
Confrontation is not desirable: It is rude and destructive.	Confrontation: It is healthy to give and receive feedback.
"No” is substituted for “Well…, maybe…, let's see…”	“No”
Group identity is emphasized.	Identity based on individual characteristics.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Cambodian and U.S. majority cultures (High vs. low context).

Cambodian Culture High context	American Majority Culture Low context
Prefers implicit language and derives most information from the context of the communication rather than the actual code used.	Values are explicit; language is neutral; derives most information through the actual code used to communicate.
Alludes to shared experiences in communication.	Avoids allusions and connotations in communication.
Employs ambiguous communication to convey a wide range of emotional responses. Expects members of the “in” group to know and follow the appropriate protocol when interacting.	Prefers precise language to describe fact, technique or expectation.
Considers it inappropriate to discuss an individual's problems in public. Criticism, if necessary, is done in private and indirectly. Questioning about the issue, talking around rather than directly about the issue and allowing the person to deal with the problem are more likely to elicit a positive response.	Considers it inappropriate to discuss an individual's problems in public. Criticism can, however, is frequently done in public. Values direct communication to resolve differences.

Hofstede and Bond (1984) also differentiate cultures on the basis of the variables in communication and interaction styles predominant within each culture. One of the variables refers to low power distance versus high power distance; another variable refers to masculinity versus femininity. The following charts compare U.S. majority culture, which is perceived as being predominantly low power distance and masculine, to Cambodian culture, which is perceived as being predominantly high power distance and feminine.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Puerto Rican and U.S. majority cultures (High vs. low power distance).

Cambodian Culture High power distance	American Majority Culture Low power distance
Honors referent powers, and perceives a clear delineation between superiors and subordinates and between the young and the old. Demands obedience in children.	Honors legitimate or expert power; considers authority something to be earned.
Expects teachers to direct student‘s learning.	Encourages independence and active experimentation in children.
Obedience, respect and allegiance to superiors or those in power is considered highly desirable.	Places a premium on student initiative and student-oriented educational process.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Cambodian and U.S. majority cultures (femininity vs. masculinity)

Cambodian Culture Femininity	American Majority Culture Masculinity
Places higher value on people, quality of life and nurturing. Meeting basic needs is considered a sufficient end in itself. Ambition and competitiveness are not valued traits. Argument and confrontation are to be avoided.	Places higher value on material possessions, power and assertiveness.
Considers disagreement impolite and, therefore, may verbalize ‘yes’ but act to the contrary.	Disagreement is valued as a means of expressing one’s self.
Values sparing a person’s feelings (saving face). Confrontation or disrespect is avoided. Choosing not to answer a question is a strategy often employed to avoid verbal disagreement.	Values the truth over sparing the feelings of another. Direct confrontation or verbal disagreement is used when necessary.
Clearly delineates sex roles. The father or oldest child is seen as the head of the family. The mother is often perceived as a subordinate figure. Due to decades of war and civil unrest, the male population has been drastically reduced and women are assuming roles that were previously reserved for men.	Clearly delineates sex roles.
Possesses strong concern for social harmony and human relationships.	Has strong motivation for achievement, and considers work central to life.