Interpersonal Communication

Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, & Chua (1988), differentiate cultures on the basis of the variables in communication and interaction styles predominant within each culture. One of the variables refers to individualism versus collectivism; another variable refers to low context versus high context. The following charts compare U.S. culture, which is perceived as being predominantly individualistic and low context, to Puerto Rican culture, which is perceived as being predominantly collectivist and high context.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Puerto Rican and U.S. majority cultures (Collectivism vs. Individualism).

Puerto Rican Culture Collectivism	American Majority Culture Individualism
Extended family: Parent(s), children, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.	Nuclear family: Parent(s)and children.
Loyalty to the group = “I belong.”	Loyalty to one's own goals = “I'm self-sufficient.”
Group consensus = “We”	Personal opinion = “I”
Omission of truth = Harmony	Omission of truth = Dishonesty
Confrontation is not desirable; it's rude.	Confrontation: It is healthy to give and receive feedback.
"No” is substituted for “Well…, maybe…, let's see…”	“No”
Group identity is emphasized.	Identity based on individual characteristics.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Puerto Rican and U.S. majority cultures (High vs. low context).

Puerto Rican Culture High context	American Majority Culture Low context
Prefers implicit language and derives most information from the context of the communication rather than the actual code used.	Values are explicit; language is neutral; derives most information through the actual code used to communicate.
Alludes to shared experiences in communication.	Avoids allusions and connotations in communication.
Employs ambiguous communication to convey a wide range of emotional responses. Expects members of the “in” group to know and follow the appropriate protocol when interacting.	Prefers precise language to describe fact, technique or expectation.

Hofstede and Bond (1984) also differentiate cultures on the basis of the variables in communication and interaction styles predominant within each culture. One of the variables refers to low power distance versus high power distance; another variable refers to masculinity versus femininity. The following charts compare U.S. majority culture, which is perceived as being predominantly low power distance and masculine, to Puerto Rican culture, which is perceived as being predominantly high power distance and feminine.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Puerto Rican and U.S. majority cultures (High vs. low power distance).

Puerto Rican Culture High power distance	American Majority Culture Low power distance
Honors referent powers, and perceives a clear delineation between superiors and subordinates and between the young and the old.	Honors legitimate or expert power; considers authority something to be earned.
Values obedience in children.	Encourages independence and active experimentation in children.
Expects teachers to be authoritarian and direct student learning.	Places a premium on student initiative and student-oriented educational process.

Comparison of variables in interpersonal communication between Puerto Rican and U.S. majority cultures (femininity vs. masculinity)

Puerto Rican Culture Femininity	American Majority Culture Masculinity
Places value on people, quality of life, and nurturing behaviors.	Places higher value on material possessions, power and assertiveness.
Interprets sex roles more fluidly and places greater value on cooperative efforts and service.	Clearly delineates sex roles and individual competition has been highly regarded.
Possess strong concern for social harmony and human relationships.	Has strong motivation for achievement, and considers work central to life.

The traditional Puerto Rican family raises children according to gender roles. As a result, boys and girls are raised differently. According to Rivera-Schoendorf (n.d.), “Boys are expected to be aggressive and extroverted, are allowed to play outside the household much earlier than girls are, and are encouraged to take risks and to participate in neighborhood activities. Girls are expected to stay close to home, assume domestic responsibilities and to behave in a restrained and obedient manner (p.4).”

Gender differences are culturally very strong and expressed through attitudes of machismo (manliness) and marianismo (femininity). These cultural attitudes have implications for how children will fare in a school setting. By the time the children arrive in school, they have internalized these basic values and beliefs through their family life. Often rules of behavior that have been encouraged at home are no longer appropriate in the school setting.